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这篇文章和上次写的那篇【百年老狼】应该对照阅读
两篇文章是一个硬币的两面。一篇说资本主义天然就有自己的需求不足问题,一篇说产业升级就能避免泡沫和危机。这用马克思主义的话说,就是一个社会制度(比如资本主义,比如国家资本主义)的存亡取决于能否促进生产力发展。能的话,不管遇到多大的制度问题,也有调整空间;不能,那就只有一个“死”字。

1 怎样“印钱”
“钱荒”是这几天最重的国内新闻。各地利率飙升,金融机构四处借钱,不管是谁,只要手里捏着几百万现金,就可以对平时趾高气扬的银行经理耀武扬威,股票市场因为一两条消息大起大落。网银的每次技术问题——不管是真是假,都会被放大成直指中央政治局的传言。就连菜市场大妈的小道消息都在嚷嚷存款不一定可靠。这钱都去哪儿了?

从字面意思说,“荒”是指遭灾,粮食歉收。要“救荒”,不能只发粮食(钱),还要尽快把粮食生产恢复到平时水平,才能从根本上解决问题。现在钱“荒”了,也必须先考虑平时为什么不“荒”。

钱是啥?是中国人民银行印刷的纸币,是在中国人民银行允许下,其他银行增加的存款数字。这些钱是怎么到企业、到普通人手里的?为何钱能越来越多呢?

从逻辑上说,人民币的印发方式有这样几种:

首先是最古老的发钞方式——买黄金。金矿出产黄金,中央银行用现钞收购一部分,相当于借助金矿向社会发钞。金矿向股东支付利润,向政府交税,向工人发工资,向供应商付货款,人民币从而成为流通货币。

其次要说最不合体统、却是最近十几年最重要的发钞方式——购汇。中国企业努力拓展海外市场,从国外弄到了足够多的外汇(主要是美元)。拿到国内,央行指示外汇管理局一律收兑,按照牌价换给你人民币。等到需要进口的时候,企业再把人民币换成美元去支付。其中复杂的手续就不说了,总之这些年中国年年巨额顺差,赚进来的美元远多于花出去的。无数个出口企业赚进来的几万亿美元都得交给央行,央行就得拿出人民币来兑换。市面上因此多了几十万亿基础货币(在法律意义上可以全额兑换出来的现钞数目)。企业可以随便花销这些钱,买东西也成,开工资也行,最后合法地流到普通人手里。

第三种方式就是央行买国债。国家发债,央行出钱买(不一定直接买)。国家得到现金,央行得到债券。这近似于国家左手创造钱再送给右手。让政府花印出来的钱,而不是收税收到的钱,政府凭空增加了财政收入。显然,这很容易造成通货膨胀,物价失控。80年代的中国政府就曾经靠印钱度日。1984年政府直接从央行拿走260亿,到了1991年每年直接发钞1000多亿。这期间发生了1988年大涨价,涨价直接导致了惊心动魄的1989年政治风波,几乎把政府推到自杀的悬崖上。

所以,中国法律现在禁止央行直接买中国国债(美国的倒可以),即禁止中国政府凭空印钱。但法律并不禁止人民银行从商业银行的手里买国债。从效果上说,这和央行直接买国债区别不大,但至少政府要先把债卖给现金充足的商业银行,再让央行印钱把本息收回来,绕个圈子算是制约一下政府无限制印钱。但无论怎么绕圈子,央行买国债,本质上就是把现金交到了财政部手里,成为政府的财政收入,财政部想怎么花就怎么花。买军舰,修水利,发低保,盖学校都行。钱最后也流到了社会上。

第四种方式也是买有价证券,只是不买国家的债券,买银行的各种票据,各种资产。比如买一张没到期的银行汇票,现金自然转给了卖主。当然,价格肯定低于票面价格。

第五种方式就是往外借钱。比如说通过“再贷款”把钱借给商业银行。商业银行有了低息的进项,不能干放在家里付息,会加点利息把钱贷出去。贷款人可能是企业也可能是个人。

其实第四种、第五种方式的本质区别不是很大。央行借钱给商业银行,实际上也需要银行有相应的资产做实际上的抵押,一般不会凭空给钱。央行买了证券、票据,到时候也是要换成钱的,相当于借钱给社会再要回来。这两种模式算是比较“正常”的发钞模式。

除此之外,改变贷款准备金率也可以控制市面上货币的增减。但这不影响基础货币的发行,也不影响普通人(企业)拿到钱的方式。从长期来看,政府会保证准备金率基本稳定,不会通过连续降低准备金率来发钞。
央行自己也会发一些债券,反过来向市场支付利息,调节市场流动性,但数量不大,利息也远低于市面资金价格。为了讨论简洁,在此暂且不谈这2个问题。

2 借新债还旧债

除了印伪钞之外,钱的来源主要就是上面这五种。

第一种发钞方式有个最大的缺陷——黄金太少了。中国近年黄金产量飙升,已经是世界第一产金大国,每年不过出产几百吨黄金。扣除其中直接做成饰品和金条,被个人收藏的部分,再扣除工业消耗,央行最多收购一二百吨。按照市价,价值几百亿人民币。这远远不足以应付经济增长所需。所以人类很早就放弃了金本位货币。在当今社会,黄金货币只是一个很次要的发钞方式,在讨论全局问题的时候可以忽略。后面还会谈到这个问题。

第二种换汇印钞的方式虽然量大,但从长远来看也靠不住。美国也好,别国也罢,不可能永久性地让中国占有巨额顺差,摧毁他们的产业。从中国整体来看,美国的国债和美元都是凭空印出来的,不花掉都是纸,也不能无限制的攒下去、让美国不劳而获。一个正常的经济体本来也不该攒这么高比例的外币。所以最近几年,出口增速开始下降。换汇增加的货币不那么多了。在考虑当下乃至未来的中国问题时,我们应该基于自行印钞来讨论问题。

剩下三种印钞模式有一个共同点——央行(人行)在账面上不做亏本生意。不论是买国债、借钱给银行,还是买票据。央行最终要收回更多的钱,至少不会少于付出的钱。政府要收税来赎回国债,商业银行要赚钱来偿还“再贷款”本息,开出票据的银行要付出更多的钱收回票据。就算央行长期持有社会资产,也会为此收取永久性的利息。

这很容易理解,央行虽然不是个纯粹的企业,但总还是个银行。必须为自己的商品——钞票索要价格。央行对外放款的利率,就是为此收取的租金。虽然世上偶尔也有负利率的央行,但那指的是存款负利率,贷款利率最低至0而止。至少在账面上,央行是不做赔本买卖的,否则借出的多,收回的少,商业银行和企业不用经营就能从央行赚钱,谁还会做别的生意呢?

不过,按照这个规则,央行发出去的钱最终都会回到自己手里——而且比发出去的时候更多。如此说来,岂非钱荒是必然的结果?岂非市面上每一块钱最终都会被央行收走?

我们都知道,现实中从未出现这么荒谬的情况。这说明央行以外的社会得到了足够的钱,足够偿还源于央行的债务。这些钱从哪来呢?唯一的答案还是央行——别人没有制造货币的权力。很显然,在前一轮现金涌回央行之前,央行用另一轮发行制造了更多的货币,推向全社会。然后新一轮发行的货币必须用另一轮更大的发行来平衡。如此往复,我们完全可以说整个社会需要不断地“借新债还旧债”,新债一定大于旧债——最终的债主都是央行。

这指向一个重要结论——只要国家开始用央行发行信用货币,社会上流通的货币数量就会稳步地以指数增长,永不停息。钱会不会因此不停贬值呢?

温和通胀的确是大部分国家的通例,但世界上的主要经济体还是基本保证了币值的稳定,很少出现纸币购买力快速奔向0的情况。这就需要把金融和实体经济结合起来考虑。


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